Chapter 9 The Personal Style Scales

There are six personal style scales (PSSs) on the Strong 244 assessment, one more than on the previous version of the Strong assessment. PSSs are built using a variety of methods. Two are linear combinations of other scales (PSS1 and PSS2), two are empirically constructed (PSS3 and PSS4), and two are rationally constructed (PSS5 and PSS6).

9.1 PSS1 and PSS2: Prediger model scales

The primary revision in the PSS scales is the splitting of what was formerly the Work Styles scale, where low scores indicated that respondents preferred to work with ideas, data, and things and high scores indicated that respondents preferred to work with people into two separate orthogonal scales.

The two new scales, People–Things and Data–Ideas, are based on the Prediger (1982) model, which is built upon scores from the GOT scales. This model is designed to make simple orthogonal dimensions to locate interests in two-dimensional space, and is an alternative to the RIASEC model. Scale scores are computed from RIASEC standard scores using the same formulas as in (T. J. Tracey et al., 2005):

  • People–Things = 2R + I - A - 2S - E + C, where high scores indicate an interest in things and low scores indicate an interest in people.
  • Data–Ideas = 1.73E + 1.73C - 1.73I - 1.73A, where high scores indicate an interest in data and low scores indicate an interest in ideas.

These new scales tease apart differences that were present in the Work Style scale, from the 2004 Strong assessment. In this scale, ideas, data, and things were situated at one pole, while people was situated at the opposite pole.

In the GRS, the new People–Things scale and the 2004 Work Style scale are correlated -0.77, indicating that the People–Things scale retains a great deal of conceptual similarity to the Work Style scale. However, the scaling is now reversed, such that in the current scale lower scores indicate an interest in working with people.

The new Data–Ideas scale is orthogonal to People–Things (r = 0.03 in the GRS) and is weakly correlated with the previous Work Style scale (r = 0.19 in the GRS).

9.2 Reliability

Because of the different construction methods of different PSSs, internal consistency is meaningful for only two of the six PSSs: Risk Taking and Team Orientation. These are the two PSSs that were developed from homogeneous item content.

Test-retest reliability can be used to evaluate the reliability of all six PSSs.

Table 9.1: PSSs: Number of Items, Internal Consistency, and Test-Retest Reliability
PSS Alpha Retest short Retest long
People–Things 0.92 0.93
Data–Ideas 0.93 0.84
Learning Environment 0.84 0.83
Leadership Style 0.80 0.70
Risk Taking 0.73 0.80 0.88
Team Orientation 0.83 0.74 0.68

9.3 Validity

9.3.1 Correlations with previous PSSs

Correlations between the previous Work Style scale and the new People–Things and Data–Ideas scales are reported in section PSS1 and PSS2: Prediger model scales. The four remaining PSSs retain similar meanings to their previous versions.

Three of the four remaining PSSs generally had high correlations across the two forms (Learning Environment r = 0.69; Risk Taking r = 0.92; Team Orientation r = 0.96). However, the Leadership Style PSS is only moderately positively correlated (r = 0.32). This difference is due to the change in scale construction methods, with the current scale being empirically built to differentiate people at higher organizational levels from people at lower organizational levels.

9.3.2 Correlations among PSSs

Correlations among the PSSs in the GRS are presented in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Correlations among PSSs
People–Things Data–Ideas Learning Environment Leadership Style Risk Taking
Data–Ideas 0.03
Learning Environment -0.24 -0.27
Leadership Style 0.06 0.10 0.41
Risk Taking 0.29 0.05 -0.01 0.20
Team Orientation -0.20 0.02 0.18 0.05 0.31

9.3.3 Correlations between PSSs and GOTs

Correlations between the PSSs and GOTs in the GRS are presented in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: Correlations bewteen PSSs and GOTs
People–Things Data–Ideas Learning Environment Leadership Style Risk Taking Team Orientation
R 0.55 -0.04 -0.08 0.17 0.73 0.23
I 0.36 -0.38 0.10 0.06 0.47 0.26
A -0.31 -0.47 0.26 0.04 0.34 0.31
S -0.56 -0.01 0.18 -0.02 0.25 0.45
E -0.23 0.42 0.02 0.24 0.50 0.41
C 0.33 0.48 -0.14 0.04 0.39 0.19

9.3.4 Correlations between PSSs and BISs

Correlations between the PSSs and BISs in the GRS are presented in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Correlations between PSSs and BISs
People–Things Data–Ideas Learning Environment Leadership Style Risk Taking Team Orientation
Mechanics & Construction 0.53 -0.06 0.00 0.18 0.64 0.25
Computer Hardware & Electronics 0.53 0.15 -0.18 0.03 0.45 0.13
Military 0.37 0.08 -0.17 0.13 0.55 0.09
Protective Services 0.26 0.00 -0.21 0.03 0.74 0.27
Nature & Agriculture 0.28 -0.19 0.03 0.15 0.49 0.25
Athletics -0.01 0.05 0.04 0.13 0.59 0.33
Science 0.39 -0.35 0.07 0.07 0.46 0.23
Research 0.23 -0.04 0.17 0.15 0.39 0.31
Medical Science 0.23 -0.20 -0.01 0.06 0.48 0.20
Mathematics 0.36 0.00 0.18 0.15 0.35 0.23
Conservation & Environmentalism
Visual Arts & Design -0.17 -0.43 0.21 0.03 0.37 0.30
Performing Arts -0.32 -0.37 0.19 0.01 0.34 0.31
Writing & Mass Communication -0.31 -0.35 0.32 0.13 0.19 0.23
Culinary Arts -0.20 -0.14 0.09 0.01 0.23 0.33
Counseling & Helping -0.55 -0.06 0.20 0.00 0.18 0.49
Teaching & Education -0.47 -0.06 0.13 -0.01 0.20 0.29
Human Resources & Training -0.37 0.25 0.15 0.00 0.26 0.49
Social Sciences -0.27 -0.20 0.31 0.06 0.30 0.41
Religion & Spirituality -0.21 -0.01 0.10 0.12 0.19 0.19
Healthcare Services -0.02 -0.05 -0.22 -0.17 0.33 0.24
Hospitality & Tourism
Marketing & Advertising -0.25 0.30 0.13 0.24 0.44 0.43
Sales -0.05 0.46 -0.15 0.15 0.44 0.19
Management -0.15 0.36 0.01 0.14 0.37 0.33
Entrepreneurship -0.10 0.24 0.03 0.22 0.45 0.46
Politics & Public Speaking -0.05 0.06 0.21 0.31 0.44 0.23
Law -0.06 0.07 0.09 0.20 0.44 0.25
Office Management -0.13 0.29 -0.29 -0.22 0.06 0.15
Taxes & Accounting 0.36 0.39 -0.05 0.12 0.35 0.23
Programming & Information Systems 0.38 0.11 -0.02 0.05 0.40 0.19
Finance & Investing 0.28 0.38 0.05 0.27 0.52 0.20

9.3.5 Correlations between PSSs and preference scales on the MBTI® Step I™ assessment

Correlations between the PSSs and the MBTI® Global Step I™ assessment continuous (logit) preference scales are reported in Table 9.5.

Table 9.5: Correlations between PSSs and the MBTI® Step I™ assessment
Extraversion–Introversion Sensing–Intuition Thinking–Feeling Judging–Perceiving
People-Things 0.23 -0.17 -0.33 0.05
Data-Ideas -0.12 -0.29 -0.08 -0.13
Learning Environment -0.18 0.08 0.03 -0.14
Leadership Style -0.17 0.03 -0.22 -0.03
Risk Taking -0.04 0.02 -0.27 0.15
Team Orientation -0.29 0.01 0.06 -0.07

9.3.6 Correlations between PSSs and CPI 260® assessment scales

Correlations between the PSSs and CPI 260® assessment scales are reported in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6: Correlations between PSSs and CPI 260® assessment scales
People–Things Data–Ideas Learning Environment Leadership Style Risk Taking Team Orientation
Dominance -0.04 0.22 0.22 0.50 0.28 0.36
Capacity for Status -0.19 -0.07 0.34 0.35 0.16 0.26
Sociability -0.14 0.12 0.16 0.32 0.22 0.34
Social Presence -0.18 0.01 0.23 0.28 0.16 0.16
Self-acceptance -0.10 0.16 0.19 0.41 0.26 0.26
Independence 0.06 0.16 0.23 0.49 0.28 0.27
Empathy -0.23 -0.11 0.28 0.25 0.08 0.26
Responsibility 0.01 -0.08 0.27 0.20 -0.03 0.27
Social Conformity 0.07 0.14 0.12 0.17 0.08 0.26
Self-control 0.20 0.03 0.00 0.00 -0.01 0.18
Good Impression 0.15 0.13 0.04 0.12 0.12 0.33
Communality 0.05 0.02 0.10 0.10 0.00 0.14
Well-being 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.29 0.19 0.29
Tolerance -0.03 -0.10 0.25 0.19 0.00 0.18
Achievement via Conformance 0.03 0.09 0.23 0.26 0.10 0.34
Achievement via Independence -0.09 -0.23 0.37 0.20 -0.03 0.17
Conceptual Fluency 0.04 -0.11 0.32 0.32 0.12 0.27
Insightfulness 0.07 -0.10 0.28 0.26 0.09 0.24
Flexibility -0.21 -0.29 0.24 -0.02 -0.17 -0.10
Sensitivity -0.41 -0.31 0.07 -0.37 -0.52 -0.21
Vector 1 0.17 -0.18 -0.16 -0.37 -0.23 -0.21
Vector 2 0.11 0.20 0.02 0.14 0.12 0.29
Vector 3 -0.04 -0.09 0.27 0.20 -0.02 0.19
Managerial Potential 0.02 0.10 0.30 0.42 0.15 0.33
Work Orientation 0.14 0.02 0.14 0.18 0.11 0.29
Creative Temperament -0.23 -0.21 0.35 0.23 -0.04 0.07
Leadership 0.00 0.17 0.25 0.47 0.26 0.41
Amicability 0.08 0.06 0.13 0.15 0.06 0.27
Law Enforcement Orientation 0.26 0.34 -0.07 0.25 0.33 0.31

9.3.7 Correlations between PSSs and FIRO-B® assessment scales

Correlations between the PSSs and the interpersonal need scales measured by the FIRO-B® assessment are reported in Table 9.7.

Table 9.7: Correlations between PSSs and FIRO-B® assessment interpersonal need areas
Expressed Inclusion Expressed Control Expressed Affection Wanted Inclusion Wanted Control Wanted Affection
People–Things -0.19 -0.02 -0.25 -0.13 -0.03 -0.21
Data–Ideas 0.12 0.15 0.02 0.03 -0.02 -0.03
Learning Environment 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.01 0.10
Leadership Style 0.13 0.33 0.05 0.02 -0.11 0.01
Risk Taking 0.08 0.18 -0.02 0.05 -0.07 -0.04
Team Orientation 0.31 0.12 0.23 0.14 0.03 0.14

9.3.8 Correlations between PSSs and TKI® assessment scales

Correlations between the PSSs and conflict-handling mode scales of the TKI® assessment scales are reported in Table 9.8.

Table 9.8: Correlations between PSSs and TKI® scales
Accommodating Avoiding Collaborating Competing Compromising
People–Things -0.14 0.04 -0.03 0.13 -0.03
Data–Ideas -0.12 -0.08 0.04 0.11 0.04
Learning Environment -0.02 -0.15 0.07 0.04 0.06
Leadership Style -0.19 -0.31 0.17 0.23 0.07
Risk Taking -0.14 -0.14 0.07 0.17 0.02
Team Orientation -0.05 -0.18 0.21 -0.06 0.12

9.3.9 Group differences

9.3.9.1 PSS3: Learning Environment

The Learning Environment scale is designed to differentiate between respondents who prefer academic learning environments and those who enjoy practical learning environments. This scale was built by using item responses to predict Whether respondents in the GRS had high and low levels of education.

For the means of the Learning Environment scale by level of education completed in the GRS, see Table 9.9.

Table 9.9: PSS3 by level of education completed
Level of education completed Mean SD
Some high school 42.96 7.50
High school diploma 42.96 7.61
Trade technical training 43.64 7.75
Some college, no degree 45.50 7.99
Associate degree 46.92 7.90
Bachelor’s degree 52.77 8.71
Master’s degree 56.67 9.40
Professional degree, MD 57.57 10.37
Doctorate, PhD 60.28 10.06

9.3.9.2 PSS4: Leadership style

Similar to the Learning Environment scale, the Leadership Style scale is designed to differentiate between respondents who prefer to lead others and are comfortable in leadership positions and those who prefer to lead by example. This scale was built by using item responses to predict whether respondents in the GRS were at higher and lower organizational levels.

For the means of the Leadership Style scale by organizational level in the GRS, see Table 9.10.

Table 9.10: PSS4 by organizational level
Organizational level Mean SD
Entry level 46.62 9.31
Non-supervisory employee 48.05 9.25
Supervisor 49.91 9.15
Management 53.30 9.59
Executive 58.10 10.38
Top executive 58.18 10.63

9.3.9.3 Gender differences

Gender differences on the six PSSs are reported in Table 9.11.

Table 9.11: PSSs: Gender differences
PSS Female mean Female SD Male mean Male SD d
People–Things 46.29 9.83 53.71 8.78 -0.80
Data–Ideas 49.29 10.22 50.72 9.61 -0.14
Learning Environment 49.69 10.17 50.31 9.83 -0.06
Leadership Style 47.28 9.51 52.72 9.75 -0.56
Risk Taking 45.93 9.13 54.06 9.19 -0.89
Team Orientation 49.35 10.41 50.65 9.48 -0.13

9.3.9.4 Ethnicity

Ethnicity differences on the six PSSs are reported in Table 9.12.

Table 9.12: PSSs: Ethnicity differences
Ethnicity n People-Things mean People-Things SD Data-Ideas mean Data-Ideas SD Learning Environment mean Learning Environment SD Leadership Style mean Leadership Style SD Risk Taking mean Risk Taking SD Team Orientation mean Team Orientation SD
Asian 4,297 50.3 9.3 50.7 9.6 50.9 9.8 49.2 9.8 50.7 9.9 51.0 10.0
Black 7,139 48.2 9.5 52.1 8.9 48.1 9.1 49.6 9.4 48.8 9.9 49.2 10.7
Hispanic 11,257 50.1 9.6 50.9 9.7 47.4 9.4 47.5 9.8 50.3 10.4 50.0 10.5
Indian 969 51.3 8.0 50.3 9.4 53.3 10.1 53.1 9.8 53.0 9.9 52.2 9.8
Middle Eastern 970 50.1 9.2 50.6 10.1 50.7 10.2 51.5 10.2 50.5 9.9 49.9 10.3
Native American 6,784 48.1 9.5 52.2 8.9 48.2 9.2 49.3 9.3 48.6 9.9 50.0 10.8
Pacific Islander 543 49.5 9.9 50.7 9.4 47.6 9.3 48.2 9.4 51.3 10.3 50.8 10.3
White 69,891 50.3 10.3 49.3 10.2 50.7 10.2 50.5 10.1 50.1 10.0 50.0 9.7

9.3.9.5 Occupation category

Occupation category differences on the six PSSs are reported in Table 9.13.

Table 9.13: GOTs: Occupation category differences
Occupation Category n People-Things mean People-Things SD Data-Ideas mean Data-Ideas SD Learning Environment mean Learning Environment SD Leadership Style mean Leadership Style SD Risk Taking mean Risk Taking SD Team Orientation mean Team Orientation SD
Business and financial operations 10,975 50.6 9.0 52.9 9.4 51.5 9.8 51.6 10.1 50.7 9.7 50.7 9.7
Computer and mathematical occupations 4,216 56.2 8.2 49.0 9.5 51.9 9.3 50.8 9.6 52.4 9.3 51.2 9.3
Architecture and engineering 2,247 57.8 8.3 47.6 8.9 53.6 9.0 53.8 9.7 54.3 9.0 52.1 9.2
Life, physical, and social sciences 2,365 50.7 10.1 42.3 10.5 56.2 10.5 50.5 9.4 48.4 9.1 50.6 9.8
Community and social services 5,478 44.6 10.0 47.4 9.9 52.5 9.6 48.9 9.5 47.8 9.5 49.9 10.5
Legal 1,659 48.8 9.0 48.1 9.3 52.9 11.2 52.3 10.8 50.8 9.2 51.1 9.6
Education, training, and library occupations 11,888 44.9 10.1 47.1 10.0 54.4 10.0 48.9 9.4 46.5 9.5 49.3 10.6
Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media 2,977 48.1 9.1 45.9 10.4 51.8 9.4 50.5 9.5 49.3 9.6 49.6 9.9
Healthcare practitioner and technical occupations 3,790 50.7 9.0 45.5 9.7 50.7 10.1 49.6 10.0 48.5 9.9 49.6 9.8
Healthcare support occupations 3,802 49.3 8.8 49.3 9.3 45.6 8.7 46.7 9.6 47.1 10.2 49.2 10.3
Protective services 1,850 53.1 8.5 50.3 8.8 46.3 8.0 49.6 9.4 54.7 9.8 51.0 9.7
Food preparation and food service 6,049 49.7 9.7 51.0 10.3 45.1 8.0 47.1 9.1 49.6 10.3 48.2 9.8
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance 929 54.5 8.2 51.4 9.4 44.6 7.8 49.3 8.9 51.7 9.9 48.9 9.6
Personal care and personal service 2,511 47.1 10.0 49.9 9.8 46.4 8.5 46.9 8.9 47.6 10.1 48.0 10.2
Sales and related occupations 9,910 49.2 9.5 53.7 9.6 47.8 9.1 51.1 10.2 51.4 10.3 49.9 10.0
Office and administrative support 8,949 48.6 9.3 51.7 9.5 46.9 8.8 45.8 9.2 47.1 9.5 49.6 9.9
Farming, fishing, and forestry 420 57.2 8.8 50.1 9.9 45.2 8.3 50.0 8.7 51.7 9.8 47.8 9.7
Construction and extraction occupations 1,605 57.7 7.4 50.6 8.8 45.1 8.0 51.4 9.1 55.2 9.2 49.8 9.3
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 2,225 58.9 7.8 50.7 9.0 44.6 7.8 50.0 9.0 55.2 9.2 49.7 9.2
Production occupations 2,494 56.5 8.4 51.3 8.6 45.5 8.6 49.8 9.6 52.8 9.9 50.4 9.8
Transportation and materials moving 1,867 54.9 8.7 51.7 8.9 45.5 8.3 49.7 9.0 54.0 9.5 50.0 9.5
Military specific occupations 1,928 55.9 8.9 50.4 9.1 47.4 9.5 51.5 9.4 55.1 9.5 50.6 9.6
Management 9,189 49.3 9.8 51.2 9.3 54.3 10.2 55.2 10.4 51.3 9.5 51.6 9.9

9.3.9.6 Academic major

Major category differences on the six PSSs are reported in Table 9.14.

Table 9.14: PSSs: Major category differences
Major Category n People-Things mean People-Things SD Data-Ideas mean Data-Ideas SD Learning Environment mean Learning Environment SD Leadership Style mean Leadership Style SD Risk Taking mean Risk Taking SD Team Orientation mean Team Orientation SD
Agriculture, Agriculture Operations, and Related Sciences 5,566 52.7 10.1 46.5 12.5 46.3 8.1 46.5 8.5 47.4 10.6 49.8 9.2
Natural Resources and Conservation 2,918 53.6 10.0 40.4 11.4 49.4 8.8 45.0 7.8 47.0 10.1 51.1 9.1
Architecture and Related Services 4,116 51.3 9.6 48.4 10.5 47.9 8.1 47.4 8.0 48.8 10.1 50.9 9.0
Area, Ethnic, Cultural, Gender, and Group Studies 1,595 42.7 10.5 45.7 11.0 52.3 9.1 45.0 8.3 44.3 9.8 52.4 9.5
Communication, Journalism, and Related Programs 15,571 39.5 10.2 51.9 10.6 49.6 8.0 47.4 8.1 44.6 10.1 52.0 9.1
Communications Technologies/Technicians and Support Services 2,509 43.9 10.2 49.7 10.2 48.0 8.0 45.8 8.2 45.3 10.2 51.2 9.4
Computer and Information Sciences and Support Services 14,091 57.4 9.0 51.8 10.7 45.7 8.0 43.6 8.1 48.9 10.0 50.6 9.4
Personal and Culinary Services 1,246 47.7 9.4 48.7 10.0 42.7 7.3 44.9 8.2 46.6 10.4 49.3 10.5
Education 32,583 39.1 10.3 48.0 10.3 49.1 8.4 44.8 8.0 44.0 10.3 51.5 9.6
Engineering 21,890 59.3 9.4 48.9 10.8 47.3 8.2 46.7 8.3 51.5 9.8 52.0 9.0
Engineering Technologies and Engineering-Related Fields 580 60.2 9.0 52.1 9.7 42.6 7.0 45.8 8.3 52.1 10.3 51.4 9.7
Foreign Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics 3,364 43.4 10.2 45.1 11.2 53.1 8.5 44.5 8.2 44.4 9.7 50.6 9.1
Family and Consumer Sciences/Human Sciences 4,225 39.7 9.5 49.4 9.8 45.3 8.2 43.0 8.1 42.9 9.8 50.9 9.7
Legal Professions and Studies 7,778 46.5 10.0 52.3 10.2 47.4 9.0 48.5 8.9 49.4 10.1 51.5 9.6
English Language and Literature/Letters 6,769 40.7 9.9 42.8 10.7 53.2 8.4 46.5 8.0 42.6 9.7 49.4 9.4
Library Science 534 48.2 9.5 48.0 11.1 46.3 7.9 44.0 8.3 44.9 10.4 48.6 9.4
Biological and Biomedical Sciences 33,108 52.2 9.3 40.2 11.6 49.4 8.2 44.6 8.4 45.8 10.1 51.2 9.0
Mathematics and Statistics 9,576 50.5 11.4 51.0 11.6 51.6 8.6 45.8 8.3 46.6 9.8 51.5 8.8
Military Science, Leadership and Operational Art 371 58.1 8.6 48.8 9.8 42.8 7.6 48.2 8.2 56.7 9.1 52.8 10.0
Multi/Interdisciplinary Studies 1,495 44.5 10.2 46.8 10.7 53.5 8.8 46.6 8.4 46.5 10.0 52.9 9.1
Parks, Recreation, Leisure, and Fitness Studies 3,979 49.2 9.2 49.0 9.6 45.4 7.0 46.0 7.8 49.5 10.1 51.8 8.9
Philosophy and Religious Studies 3,249 45.1 10.1 43.7 11.5 54.5 8.7 49.5 8.5 47.6 10.0 51.4 9.3
Theology and Religious Vocations 3,290 41.7 10.2 44.5 11.1 54.2 9.0 50.5 8.5 46.9 10.2 54.1 9.0
Physical Sciences 9,885 55.8 9.9 41.7 11.4 49.7 8.5 44.9 8.4 47.8 10.0 50.9 8.8
Psychology 71,076 40.3 10.1 44.1 11.2 51.4 8.7 44.8 8.3 45.2 9.9 51.9 9.0
Homeland Security, Law Enforcement, Firefighting and Related Protective Services 4,234 52.3 9.0 49.8 9.9 42.1 7.0 43.8 8.1 54.3 9.4 51.9 9.6
Public Administration and Social Service Professions 5,947 40.3 10.2 49.8 10.6 48.0 9.3 44.3 8.7 45.1 10.3 53.1 9.5
Social Sciences 33,879 44.5 10.4 50.1 11.9 51.8 9.2 47.3 9.1 47.5 10.2 52.6 9.0
Transportation and Materials Moving 690 58.7 9.2 50.0 9.6 44.2 7.1 46.8 7.7 57.2 9.0 49.6 9.8
Visual and Performing Arts 11,787 44.4 9.9 42.8 10.3 47.8 7.7 44.9 8.0 43.5 10.1 49.0 9.6
Health Professions and Related Programs 52,354 47.2 9.6 45.2 10.8 45.7 8.3 43.4 8.2 45.1 10.4 51.5 9.3
Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services 109,596 48.1 10.3 60.6 11.4 47.6 8.2 49.1 8.6 49.7 10.2 52.7 9.0
History 8,272 45.5 10.0 47.0 10.6 53.3 8.4 47.9 8.4 47.3 10.2 50.6 9.0

References

Prediger, D. J. (1982). Dimensions underlying holland’s hexagon: Missing link between interests and occupations? Journal of Vocational Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(82)90036-7
Tracey, T. J., Robbins, S. B., & Hofsess, C. D. (2005). Stability and change in interests: A longitudinal study of adolescents from grades 8 through 12. Journal of Vocational Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.002